英语教学法中语法翻译法与交际教学法的对比研究(1)

1. Introduction

1.1 A Brief History of Foreign Language Teaching in the West.

The history of Foreign Language Teaching has been summed up as follows:

600 years ago, the most important foreign language taught and learned in Western Europe was Latin.

Between the 17th and the early 19th centuries, ”modern” language such as English, French and German began to be taught in many schools and universities, the main teaching method adopted was Grammar Translation Method which was the method of teaching Latin. The aim was to teach students to understand (read and translate) the written language.

In the second half of the 19th century Linguists and language teachers began to cooperate to research a methodology for foreign language teaching that would be based on a scientific study of language and a study of how people learned. In Britain in the Reform Movement, linguists emphasized the study of phonetics and in the 1880s designed the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). That meant that, for the first time, the sounds of all languages could be systematically compared.

In France and Germany during the same period, The Direct Method, was developed. By the early 20th century the Direct Method had been officially adopted in French and German schools.

When the USA entered the Second World War it suddenly became clear that oral skills in foreign languages were necessary. The authorities turned to the Structural Linguists to seek for a scientific description of language and to the Behaviorist Psychologists for a scientific description of learning. The result of their cooperation became known as the Audio-lingual Method.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the Oral and Situational Methods paralleling the Audio-lingual Method, developed in Britain as a result of decades of work by British linguists.

In the 1970s and 1980s, developed from these methods, came the Communicative Approach of language teaching. This approach recognizes that learners need to know the grammatical rules of the language, but stresses that the purpose of learning such rules is to be able to do things, to perform functions.

Most recently, the greater emphasis on learners as inpiduals who have different needs, different personalities and different learning styles has led to the small-scale introduction of a variety of other methods such as the Natural Approach, The Silent Way, Total Physical Response and Community Language Learning. And these latter methods have never spread very widely. [1]

1.2 Teaching Methods: The Basic Concepts.

In describing methods, the difference between a philosophy of language teaching at the level of theory and principles, and a set of derived procedures for teaching a language, is central. In an attempt to clarify this difference, a scheme was proposed by the American applied linguist Edward Anthony in 1963. He identified three levels of conceptualization and organization, which he termed approach, method, and technique. He defined that: Approach is a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning and teaching. Method is an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach. Techniques are the specific activities manifested in the classroom that are consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an approach as well. [2] (P15)

After 20 years ago, Richards and Rodgers defined the teaching method as a system consisting of Approach, Design and Procedure. A method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by a design, and is practically realized in procedure. Design consist of seven factors: language theory; teaching objects; teaching syllabus; the type of learning and teaching activities; the role of learner, the role of teacher and the role of materials. [3] (P16)

Richards and Rodgers defined “method” is an umbrella term for the specification and interrelation of theory and practice. They believe that “The first level, approach, defines those assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and the nature of language learning the operate as axiomatic constructs or reference points and provide a theoretical foundation for what language teachers ultimately do with learners in classrooms. The second level in the system, design, specifies the relationship of theories of language and learning to both the form and function of instructional materials and activities in instructional settings. The third level, procedure, comprises the classroom techniques and practices that are consequences of particular approaches and designs.”[4](P17)

Therefore, we can conclude that if teachers can decide the correct approach, it is likely to organize Design and Procedure well and to help as many learners as possible to learn foreign languages as efficiently as possible.

2. Comparison of Two Methods

2.1 The Grammar Translation Method (GTM)

As we have known, the grammar analysis and translation as basic procedures appeared in foreign language learning in the 16th century. It developed into a popular method of teaching modern languages in the late 18th century and early 19th century. The Grammar Translation Method dominated foreign language teaching in Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s, and in modified form it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today. The principal characteristics of the GTM are as follows:

a) The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign-language study. Grammar Translation is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language.

b) Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening.

c) Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization. In a typical Grammar-Translation text, the grammar rules are presented and illustrated, a list of vocabulary items are presented with their translation equivalents, and translation exercises are prescribed.

d) The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language, and it is this focus on the sentence that is a distinctive feature of the method.

e) Accuracy is emphasized.

f) Grammar is taught deductively—that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are then practiced through translation exercises.

g) The student’s native language the medium of instruction. It is used to explain new items and to enable comparisons to be made between the foreign language and the student’s native language.[2] (P3-4)

2.1.1 Approach – View of language and language learning

Different views on language lead to different views on language teaching and learning.

GTM views language as systems of rules for the construction of correct sentences, writing is considered to be the superior form of a language. [5] (P188)

The view of language learning emphasizes the importance of memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary. If learnt it well, the English language knowledge will be available quickly and automatically for further translation tasks.

Neither the view of language nor the view of learning is very fully developed. The GTM view of language and learning seems to ignore:

a) Only learning the written language proficiently may not meet every learner’s needs.

b) Language is a system of communication. It’s a tool of communication.

2.1.2 Design and procedure.

(i) Objectives, syllabus and activities

We know that GTM emphasizes the grammar rules and vocabulary. The objective of it is to learn the L2 well enough to be able to read and translate texts in the L2 quickly and accurately. The syllabus is based on a set of written texts constructed to introduce grammar and vocabulary in a systematic way. The main teaching procedure of GTM is like that: learners reading the text; the teacher analyze the grammatical structure in the text and translate the meaning of the vocabulary items word by word; At last teacher ask learners to practiced structure and vocabulary and then complete the written exercises that follow the text.

For example: When a teacher teaches a lesson “The last lesson”, he will design the teaching activities in the following procedures:

In order to make students understand the text well, he will first make a brief introduction to the author and the text and students will listen to the teacher and take notes. Secondly, he will read and translate this text sentence by sentence, analyze the grammatical structure in the text, and translate the meaning of the vocabulary items word by word. After describing the grammar and translating the text, he will ask students to read text directly and do some practices of reading comprehension to make student understand this text more clearly. At last, he will ask the students to complete the written exercises that follow the text. [6] (P65-67)

These objectives, syllabus and activities seem to ignore that:

a) This method makes learners become passive and obedient, and it may lose their initiative of learning. [7]

b) Reading a text word by word is not how people normally read.

c) Vocabulary and grammatical structures may have different meaning in different contexts.

d) Success in mechanical practice of language structures can not sure that they can be produced it in real-life contexts quickly and correctly. [7]

e) It puts too much emphasis on reading and writing and neglects listening and speaking. In language communication, all the four skill are needed. [8] (P50)

(ii) The role of teachers, learners and materials.

In GTM method, the teacher’s role is to explain grammar rules and the meaning of words in the learners’ native language, organize practice (for example, the recitation of rules and translation), and correct learners’ mistakes. [5] (P188 )Teachers are the source of all input to learners in the EFL (English as the foreign language) context. They must ensure that they can answer any grammar or vocabulary questions that the learners might ask.

Learners are the teachers’ passive followers. The learners’ role is to pay careful attention to the teacher’s explanations and corrections, memorize rules and vocabulary lists, and carefully do the practice tasks the teacher sets. [5] (P189)

Textbook is the main line of GTM materials, there are grammatical explanations, vocabulary lists and practice exercises in it and the format of each chapter is usually identical.

The GTM view of the role of teachers, learners and materials seems to ignore that:

a) Overemphasis on translation can never emancipate the learners from dependence on the first language. Students should learn to understand the target language and to express themselves in the target language without referring to their mother tongue. [8] (P50)

b) If teacher is in the centre of the classroom teaching and learners are their passive followers, the learners’ learning consciousness will get lost. [9]

c) Grammar rules and vocabulary items in contexts different from those in the texts may carry different meanings.

d) The texts are mostly taken from literary works. The language learned often doesn’t meet the practical needs of the learners. [8](p50)

2.1.3 Conclusion.

The Grammar Translation Method makes few demands on teacher, and it’s easy for teacher to control and use it. In GTM, teacher is in the central position, and the teaching method and procedure are all easy. Students’ mother tongue is used throughout the teaching process. The only thing teacher does is to follow the prescribed order. It’s simple and easy. However, if English learning aims only to help the learners to read English for a specific purpose (for example, to be able to read articles on Chemistry, Economics or Geography), then this method will meet learners’ need, but if the aim of the L2 learning is to enable learners to do more than read the language, then GTM is unlikely to be sufficient. They can not exercise their initiative in learning and only to accept the knowledge passively. GTM emphasizes the grammar rules and vocabulary, ignores learners’ communicative abilities and rely on the mother language excessively. These disadvantages will not lead to a good effect in language learning. [10] (P26)

2.3 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

CLT approach grew out of new theories of language and language learning that developed in the 1960s and 1970s in Britain, the USA, and elsewhere. It is probably the approach most used by trained language teachers today. But it is implemented in very different ways by different teachers working in different contexts. It is an approach with wide variations, not a well-defined method. By its very nature it is eclectic. [5](P193)

2.3.1. Approach – View of language and learning

In the view of CLT language is for communication. It agrees that language is made up of a set of describable rule system.

At the level of language theory, Communicative Language Teaching has a rich, if somewhat eclectic, theoretical base. Some of the characteristics of this communicative view of language follow.

a) Language is a system for the expression of meaning.

b) The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.

c) The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.

d) The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse. [2] (P71)

The views of language learning can be discerned in some CLT practices. Richards and Rodgers described the learning theory in three:

a) Communication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning;

b) Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning;

c) Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process. [2] (P72)

This theory encourages an emphasis on practice as a way of developing communicative skills.

2.3.2 Design and procedure

(i) Objectives, syllabus and activities

The objectives of CLT are to gain the communicative competence through the language learning. What is the communicative competence? Communicative competence was described by Hymes, his theory of it was a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community. There is a more recent but related analysis of communicative competence in Canale and Swain (1980), in which four dimensions of communicative competence are identified: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. Grammatical competence refers to the domain of grammatical and lexical capacity. Sociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, including role relationships, the shared information of the participants, and the communicative purpose for their interaction. Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of inpidual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text. Strategic competence refers to the coping strategies that communicators employ to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and redirect communication. [2](P 71)